Andre-Paul-Guillaume Gide

Andre-Paul-Guillaume Gide
(1869 - 1951)

French writer, humanist, and moralist who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1947.

Heritage and youth.
Gide was the only child of Paul Gide and his wife, Juliette Rondeaux. His father was of southern Huguenot peasant stock; his mother, a Norman heiress, although Protestant by upbringing, belonged to a northern Roman Catholic family long established at Rouen. When Gide was eight he was sent to the Ecole Alsacienne in Paris, but his education was much interrupted by neurotic bouts of ill health. After his father's early death in 1880, his well-being became the chief concern of his devoutly austere mother; often kept at home, he was taught by indifferent tutors and by his mother's governess. While in Rouen Gide formed a deep attachment for his cousin, Madeleine Rondeaux.
Gide returned to the Ecole Alsacienne to prepare for his baccalaureat examination, and after passing it in 1889, he decided to spend his life in writing, music, and travel. His first work was an autobiographical study of youthful unrest entitled Les Cahiers d'Andre Walter (1891; The Notebooks of Andre Walter). Written, like most of his later works, in the first person, it uses the confessional form in which Gide was to achieve his greatest successes.

Symbolist period.
In 1891 a school friend, the writer Pierre Louys, introduced Gide into the poet Stephane Mallarme's famous "Tuesday evenings," which were the centre of the French Symbolist movement, and for a time Gide was influenced by Symbolist aesthetic theories. His works "Narcissus" (1891), Le Voyage d'Urien (1893; Urien's Voyage), and "The Lovers' Attempt" (1893) belong to this period.
In 1893 Gide paid his first visit to North Africa, hoping to find release there from his dissatisfaction with the restrictions imposed by his puritanically strict Protestant upbringing. Gide's contact with the Arab world and its radically different moral standards helped to liberate him from the Victorian social and sexual conventions he felt stifled by. One result of this nascent intellectual revolt against social hypocrisy was his growing awareness of his own homosexual inclinations. The lyrical prose poem Les Nourritures terrestres (1897; Fruits of the Earth) reflects Gide's personal liberation from the fear of sin and his acceptance of the need to follow his own impulses, however unconventional they may be. But after he returned to France, Gide's relief at having shed the shackles of convention evaporated in what he called the "stifling atmosphere" of the Paris salons. He satirized his surroundings in Marshlands (1894)--a brilliant parable of animals who, living always in dark caves, lose their sight because they never use it.

In 1894 Gide returned to North Africa, where he met Oscar Wilde and Lord Alfred Douglas, who encouraged him to admit the nature of his suppressed homosexuality. He was recalled to France because of his mother's illness, however, and she died in May 1895.

In October 1895 Gide married his cousin Madeleine, who had earlier refused him. Early in 1896 he was elected mayor of the commune of La Roque--at 27 the youngest mayor in France. He took his duties seriously but managed to complete Fruits of the Earth. It was published in 1897 and fell completely flat, although after World War I it was to become Gide's most popular and influential work. In the postwar generation, its call to each individual to express fully whatever is in him evoked an immediate response.

Great creative period.
Le Promethee mal enchaine (1899; Prometheus Misbound), a return to the satirical style of Urien's Voyage and Marshland, is Gide's last discussion of man's search for individual values. His next tales mark the beginning of his great creative period. L'Immoraliste (1902; The Immoralist), La Porte etroite (1909; Strait Is the Gate), and La Symphonie pastorale (1919; "The Pastoral Symphony") reflect Gide's attempts to achieve harmony in his marriage in their treatment of the problems of human relationships. They mark an important stage in his development: adapting his works' treatment and style to his concern with psychological problems. The Immoralist and Strait Is the Gate are in the prose form which Gide termed a recit; i.e., a studiedly simple but deeply ironic tale in which a first-person narrator reveals the inherent moral ambiguities of life by means of his seemingly innocuous reminiscences. In these works Gide achieves a mastery of classical construction and a pure, simple style.
During most of this period Gide was suffering deep anxiety and distress. Although his love for Madeleine had given his life what he called its "mystic orientation," he found himself unable, in a close, permanent relationship, to reconcile this love with his need for freedom and for experience of every kind. Les Caves du Vatican (1914; The Vatican Swindle) marks the transition to the second phase of Gide's great creative period. He called it not a tale but a sotie, by which he meant a satirical work whose foolish or mad characters are treated farcically within an unconventional narrative structure. This was the first of his works to be violently attacked for anticlericalism.

In the early 1900s Gide had already begun to be widely known as a literary critic, and in 1908 he was foremost among those who founded La Nouvelle Revue Francaise, the literary review that was to unite progressive French writers until World War II. During World War I Gide worked in Paris, first for the Red Cross, then in a soldiers' convalescent home, and finally in providing shelter to war refugees. In 1916 he returned to Cuverville, his home since his marriage, and began to write again.

The war had intensified Gide's anguish, and early in 1916 he had begun to keep a second Journal (published in 1926 as Numquid et tu) in which he recorded his search for God. Finally, however, unable to resolve the dilemma (expressed in his statement "Catholicism is inadmissible, Protestantism is intolerable; and I feel profoundly Christian"), he resolved to achieve his own ethic, and by casting off his sense of guilt to become his true self. Now, in a desire to liquidate the past, he began his autobiography, Si le grain ne meurt (1926; If It Die . . .), an account of his life from birth to marriage that is among the great works of confessional literature. In 1918 his friendship for the young Marc Allegret caused a serious crisis in his marriage, when his wife in jealous despair destroyed her "dearest possession on earth"--his letters to her.

After the war a great change took place in Gide, and his face began to assume the serene expression of his later years. By the decision involved in beginning his autobiography and the completion in 1918 of Corydon (a Socratic dialogue in defense of homosexuality begun earlier), he had achieved at last an inner reconciliation. Corydon's publication in 1924 was disastrous, though, and Gide was violently attacked, even by his closest friends.

Gide called his next work, Les Faux-Monnayeurs (1926; The Counterfeiters), his only novel. He meant by this that in conception, range, and scope it was on a vaster scale than his tales or his soties. It is the most complex and intricately constructed of his works, dealing as it does with the relatives and teachers of a group of schoolboys subject to corrupting influences both in and out of the classroom. The Counterfeiters treats all of Gide's favourite themes in a progression of discontinuous scenes and happenings that come close to approximating the texture of daily life itself.

In 1925 Gide set off for French Equatorial Africa. When he returned he published Voyage au Congo (1927; Travels in the Congo), in which he criticized French colonial policies. The compassionate, objective concern for humanity that marks the final phase of Gide's life found expression in political activities at this time. He became the champion of society's victims and outcasts, demanding more humane conditions for criminals and equality for women. For a time it seemed to him that he had found a faith in Communism. In 1936 he set out on a visit to the Soviet Union, but later expressed his disillusionment with the Soviet system in Retour de l'U.R.S.S. (1936; Return from the U.S.S.R.) and Retouches a mon retour de l'U.R.S.S. (1937; Afterthoughts on the U.S.S.R.).

Late works.
In 1938 Gide's wife, Madeleine, died. After a long estrangement they had been brought together by her final illness. To him she was always the great--perhaps the only--love of his life. With the outbreak of World War II, Gide began to realize the value of tradition and to appreciate the past. In a series of imaginary interviews written in 1941 and 1942 for Le Figaro, he expressed a new concept of liberty, declaring that absolute freedom destroys both the individual and society: freedom must be linked with the discipline of tradition. From 1942 until the end of the war Gide lived in North Africa. There he wrote "Theseus," whose story symbolizes Gide's realization of the value of the past: Theseus returns to Ariadne only because he has clung to the thread of tradition.
In June 1947 Gide received the first honour of his life: the Doctor of Letters of the University of Oxford. It was followed in November by the Nobel Prize for Literature. In 1950 he published the last volume of his Journal, which took the record of his life up to his 80th birthday. All Gide's writings illuminate some aspect of his complex character. He is seen at his most characteristic, however, in the Journal he kept from 1889, a unique work of more than a million words in which he records his experiences, impressions, interests, and moral crises during a period of more than 60 years. After its publication he resolved to write no more.

Gide's lifelong emphasis on the self-aware and sincere individual as the touchstone of both collective and individual morality was complemented by the tolerant and enlightened views he expressed on literary, social, and political questions throughout his career. For most of his life a controversial figure, Gide was long regarded as a revolutionary for his open support of the claims of the individual's freedom of action in defiance of conventional morality. Before his death he was widely recognized as an important humanist and moralist in the great 17th-century French tradition. The integrity and nobility of his thought and the purity and harmony of style that characterize his stories, verse, and autobiographical works have ensured his place among the masters of French literature.

MAJOR WORKS
Collections: Oeuvres completes, 15 vol. (1932-39; index, 1954), still awaiting completion but including items unpublished elsewhere; Romans, recits et soties, oeuvres lyriques (1958), collected fiction, with commentary and textual notes; Theatre (1947; My Theater, 1951); The Andre Gide Reader (1971).
Verse and prose poetry: Les Cahiers d'Andre Walter 1891; The Notebooks of Andre Walter, 1968); Le Traite du Narcisse (1891; "Narcissus," in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Les Poesies d'Andre Walter (1892); La Tentative amoureuse (1893; "The Lovers' Attempt," in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Le Voyage d'Urien (1893; Urien's Voyage, 1964); Les Nourritures terrestres (1897; Fruits of the Earth, 1949); El Hadj (1899; Eng. trans. in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Amyntas (1906; Eng. trans. 1958); Le Retour de l'enfant prodigue (1907; The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Les Nouvelles Nourritures (1935; New Fruits of the Earth, 1949).

Stories, satires, and fables: Paludes (1895; Marshlands, 1953); Le Promethee mal enchaine (1899; Prometheus Misbound, 1953); L'Immoraliste (1902; The Immoralist, 1930); La Porte etroite (1909; Strait Is the Gate, 1924); Isabelle (1911; Eng. trans. in Two Symphonies, 1931); Les Caves du Vatican (1914; The Vatican Swindle, 1925; Lafcadio's Adventures, 1927); La Symphonie pastorale (1919; "The Pastoral Symphony," in Two Symphonies, 931); L'Ecole des femmes (1929; The School for Wives, 1950); Rober (1929; "Robert," in The School for Wives, 1950); Geneieve (1936; "Genevieve; or the Unfinished Confidence," in The School for Wives, 1950); Thesee (1946; "Theseus," in Two Legends: Oedipus and Theseus, 1950).

Novel: Les Faux-Monnayeurs (1926; The Counterfeiters, 1927; also as The Coiners).

Drama: Philoctete (1899; "Philoctetes," in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Le Roi Candaule (1901; "King Candaules," in My Theater, 1951); Saul (1903; Eng. trans. in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Bethsabe (1912; "Bathsheba," in The Return of the Prodigal, 1953); Oedipe (1931; "Oedipus," in Two Legends: Oedipus and Theseus, 1950); Persephone (1934; Eng. trans. in My Theater, 1951); Le Treizieme arbre (1935); Robert, ou l'interet general (1944-45); Le Retour (1946); Les Caves du Vatican (1950).

Criticism: Pretextes (1903; Pretexts, 1959); Nouveaux pretextes (1911); Dostoievsky (1923; Eng. trans. 1925); Incidences (1924); Le Journal des Faux-Monnayeurs (1926; The Logbook of the Coiners, 1952); Essai sur Montaigne (1929; Montaigne, 1929); Divers (1931); Interviews imaginaires (1943; Imaginary Interviews, 1944); Attendu que . . . (1943); L'Enseignement de Poussin (1945; Poussin, 1947); Poetique (1947); Prefaces (1948); Rencontres (1948); Eloges (1948); Notes sur Chopin (1948; Notes on Chopin, 1949).

Travel: Voyage au Congo (1927), and Le Retour du Tchad (1928; Travels in the Congo, 1929); Dindiki (1927); Retour de l'U.R.S.S. (1936; Return from the U.S.S.R., 1937); Retouches a mon retour de l'U.R.S.S. (1937; Afterthoughts on the U.S.S.R., 1937).

Journal: Journal, 1889-1939 (1939); Journal, 1939-49 (1954), including most other autobiographical works; Journals of Andre Gide, 4 vol. (1947-51).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Arnold Naville, Bibliographie des ecrits de Andre Gide (1949, reprinted 1971), lists Gide's published writings. Catharine Savage Brosman, An Annotated Bibliography of Criticism on Andre Gide, 1973-1988 (1990), compiles both texts by Gide and criticisms of Gide's work written in English and other major European languages that have appeared since 1973.
Biographies in French include Claude Jacques Mahias, La Vie d'Andre Gide (1955), a pictorial work; Jean Lambert, Gide familier (1958), a study of Gide in his old age by his son-in-law; and Pierre de Boisdeffre, Vie d'Andre Gide, 1869-1951, 2 vol. (1970-71), a full-scale account. Jean Delay, La Jeunesse d'Andre Gide, 2 vol. (1956-67), also available in abridged translation by June Guicharnaud, The Youth of Andre Gide (1963), presents a sound, important psychoanalytical study. George D. Painter, Andre Gide: A Critical Biography (1968), provides a good introduction to Gide's life and work. Jean Schlumberger, Madeleine and Andre Gide, trans. by Richard H. Akeroyd (1980; originally published in French, 1956), covers Gide's marriage. Thomas Cordle, Andre Gide, updated ed. (1993), illuminates Gide's personal life.

Critical studies in English include Justin O'Brien, Portrait of Andre Gide (1953, reprinted 1977); Enid Starkie, Andre Gide (1953), a sympathetic brief guide based on a long friendship with Gide; Germaine Bree, Gide (1963, reprinted 1985; originally published in French, 1953); Wallace Fowlie, Andre Gide: His Life and Art (1965), an interesting account of the development of Gide's thought; Albert J. Guerard, Andre Gide, 2nd ed. (1969), by a specialist on Gide; G.W. Ireland, Andre Gide: A Study of His Creative Writings (1970), a discussion of his novels; Patrick Pollard, Andre Gide: Homosexual Moralist (1991), researching Gide's sources of sexual themes; and Michael Lucey, Gide's Bent: Sexuality, Politics, Writing (1995), on sexual themes.